Working Paper
This paper provides systematic empirical evidence for the widespread idea that citizenship regimes in Western democracies combine facilitated access with tighter integration conditions.
Abstract
What characterizes contemporary citizenship regimes in Western democracies? This article adopts a two-dimensional framework to answer this question. The first dimension captures facilitated access through shorter residence requirements and the toleration of multiple citizenship. The second captures integration conditions through language and citizenship testing as well as economic and criminal record requirements. Based on the extant literature, I argue that whereas most Western democracies historically relied on lengthy residence requirements and renunciation obligations as proxies for integration, contemporary citizenship regimes increasingly combine facilitated access with demanding integration conditions. Drawing on data from 23 Western democracies between 1980 and 2019, the empirical analysis confirms that this inclusive-integrationist regime has become prevalent. Moreover, regression and event history models reveal a robust negative relationship between the two dimensions: countries with more accessible citizenship regimes are more likely to adopt more demanding integration conditions. Together, these results reveal a fundamental reconfiguration of contemporary citizenship regimes in Western democracies towards conditional inclusion: states seek to expand access to citizenship while simultaneously tightening the criteria that applicants must satisfy to demonstrate their suitability for membership.
What characterizes contemporary citizenship regimes in Western democracies? This article adopts a two-dimensional framework to answer this question. The first dimension captures facilitated access through shorter residence requirements and the toleration of multiple citizenship. The second captures integration conditions through language and citizenship testing as well as economic and criminal record requirements. Based on the extant literature, I argue that whereas most Western democracies historically relied on lengthy residence requirements and renunciation obligations as proxies for integration, contemporary citizenship regimes increasingly combine facilitated access with demanding integration conditions. Drawing on data from 23 Western democracies between 1980 and 2019, the empirical analysis confirms that this inclusive-integrationist regime has become prevalent. Moreover, regression and event history models reveal a robust negative relationship between the two dimensions: countries with more accessible citizenship regimes are more likely to adopt more demanding integration conditions. Together, these results reveal a fundamental reconfiguration of contemporary citizenship regimes in Western democracies towards conditional inclusion: states seek to expand access to citizenship while simultaneously tightening the criteria that applicants must satisfy to demonstrate their suitability for membership.